29
The metallurgical activities in ancient Egypt began during the late
Predynastic era, with Wadi Dara in the Eastern Desert providing early
evidence of systematic metalworking. Copper was the first metal to be
smelted and melted, marking the first steps of ancient Egyptian metallurgy,
and the later adoption of bronze represented a significant technological leap.
Yet, key metallurgical operations, including smelting, melting, casting,
hammering, and annealing, remained largely unchanged from techniques
used during the Copper Age.
This paper will integrate the recent archaeological discoveries at Wadi Nasab
in South Sinai, including evidence of large-scale copper smelting workshops,
administrative buildings, and advanced metallurgical facilities, with the rich
heritage of metalworking scenes depicted in ancient Egyptian tombs,
primarily from the Old Kingdom. By correlating the material remains from
Wadi Nasab, which show continuous metallurgical heritage from the Old
Kingdom through the New Kingdom and illustrate state-level organization
and industrial scale production, with the visual and textual evidences from
tombs, this study aims to deepen the understanding of ancient Egypt’s
metalworking traditions and their socio-economic contexts.
Keywords
Wadi Nasab;
Metallurgy workshop;
Sinai;
Copper;
chaîne opératoire;
Metalworking Scenes;
Archaeometallurgy.
QALAMOS
Heritage Studies
Vol. 2, Issue 1, pp. 29-37
Published: Jan. 2026
ID : QALAMOS.2.1.1.2026.003 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21203462
Inherited Practices: The Heritage of
Metalworking in Ancient Egypt
between Techniques and Iconography:
Wadi Nasab (Sinai) as a Case Study
Ahmed Mansour1*, Hesham Hussein2
Ahmed.mansour@bibalex.org
ORCID 0009-0003-5212-1891
1 PhD, Director, Writing and Scripts Center,
Bibliotheca Alexandrina (Egypt)
1 PhD, Head of Lower Egypt and Sinai Archaeology,
Ministry of Tourism & Antiquities (Egypt)
Abstract
Received: July. 10, 2025
Accepted: Oct. 20, 2025
Published: Jan 1, 2026
Inherited Practices: The Heritage of Metalworking in Ancient Egypt between Techniques and Iconography
30
1. Introduction
The study of ancient Egyptian metallurgy is an emerging and interesting field that connects
modern heritage to ancient science and vice-versa. While extensive analyses of the chemical
composition and technology science of ancient Egyptian metal objects have been conducted,
there are still new data, techniques, manufacturing processes, and working conditions of
metalworking in ancient Egypt, that can be understood from new discoveries.
The ancient Egyptians established numerous sites, all over Egypt, for conducting metallurgical
activities,
1
among which the site of Ayn el-Sukhna
2
offers a good model of a copper chaîne
opératoire, where metallurgical furnaces from the Middle Kingdom were found (Abd el-Raziq
Castel, Tallet & Fluzin 2011, p. 147). The large number of furnaces, approximately a hundred
melting furnaces and ten melting batteries found by the French Mission,
3
presented an
exceptional opportunity to study metallurgy in ancient Egypt. The furnaces were used to smelt
malachite (Fig. 1)
4
which was mined on the Eastern side of the Red Sea, i.e. in Sinai, in order
to obtain liquid copper that was formed in ox-shaped ingots (Mansour 2024, p. 89–103), and
finally transported to the Nile Valley (Abdel-Raziq, Tallet, Castel & Marouard 2012, p. 7).
The second major site is Wadi Nasab, a key center of copper production in the New Kingdom.
Located in South Sinai, it was part of a broader mining district that included Serabit el-Khadim
(Mansour 2014, p. 13), Wadi Maghara, Wadi Kharig (Mansour, 2014, p. 21), and Wadi Sur
(southwest of Wadi Nasab). This industrial zone supplied Egypt with vital resources of copper
and turquoise.
5
Owing to its strategic position near the turquoise mines of Serabit el-Khadim
and its access to transport routes leading to the Gulf of Suez, Wadi Nasab maintained
connections with coastal sites such as Tell Ras Budran
6
(Mansour 2014, p. 29) which functioned
as important departure points for Egyptian metallurgical expeditions.
Together, these sites demonstrate how mining and metallurgical operations were incorporated
1
For a complete and detailed list of these sites, see: (Pfeiffer, 2013, 70).
2
The site dates to the Old Kingdom, and is located 120 km east of Cairo on the western shore of the Red Sea. I
have met Georges Verly, and we had a mutual discussion and compared iconography with the archaeological find
at Ayn el-Sukhna.
3
This mission included four parties: Institut français d’archéologie orientale (IFAO), Orient et Méditerranée (Ivry-
sur-Seine), Equipe Mondes pharaoniques (CNRS, UMR 8167), Association mer Rouge-Sinaï (AMeRS), and
Honor Frost Foundation, Sorbonne Université.
4
A green semi-precious stone that comes from Sinai. The mining expeditions that were dispatched from the Nile
valley upon the request of the king, refer to the mining of malachite. It is known in AE as sSmt: (Harris, 1961, 132–
134).
5
To read more on turquoise and its roles in ancient Egypt, cf. (Mansour, 2014).
6
Tell Ras Budran is an ancient Egyptian fort site on the Sinai Peninsula, located about 150 meters from the Gulf
of Suez. It lies near key ancient mining regions for copper and turquoise, including Wadi Maghara to the southeast
and the temple complex of Serabit el-Khadim to the east.
Ahmed Mansour & Hesham Hussein
pg. 31
into state-organized expeditions sustained by structured labor, resource administration, and
transportation networks extending from the Nile Valley. Because it was situated at the
intersection of resource-rich zones and desert trade routes in Sinai, Wadi Nasab served not only
as a source of raw materials but also as an important center of technological and industrial
innovation in ancient Egypt (for state-organized expeditions see: Mansour 2014, p.31-44;
Seyfried 1981, p. 204).
In the meantime, with the recent publications of Martin Odler’s Copper
7
in Ancient Egypt:
Before, During and After the Pyramid Age (c. 4000–1600 BC) (Brill, 2023) (Odler, 2023, vol.
132) provides the first comprehensive overview of copper use from the Predynastic to the
Second Intermediate Period, reconstructing chaîne opératoire sequences and emphasizing
Egypt’s technical sophistication and interaction with broader Mediterranean networks.
This work complements experimental studies such as Rademakers et al. (2020-2021) and G.
Verly, et al. “Minerais arséniés et production d’alliages de cuivre” (Verly et al. 2022, 19–40)
on reconstructing ancient metallurgical processes in ancient Egypt, as well as Davey’s “Out of
the Fiery Crucible” (2023) (Davey & Hayes 2023, 11–28) and Hampson’s Make It According
to Plan (2022), (Hamspon 2022) which explores production systems, resource logistics, and
craft organization within ancient metallurgical industries.
These publications conform with field data from ongoing excavations: the French mission at
Ayn el-Sukhna on the Red Sea—120 km southeast of Cairo, and a major site for Middle
Kingdom copper ingots productions, the Belgian mission at el-Kab—80 km south of Luxor—
and the Egyptian mission at Wadi Nasab in southern Sinai (a key mining zone of the New
Kingdom). Together, they produce a uniquely comprehensive foundation for an integrated
narrative of early Egyptian metallurgy—connecting laboratory science, excavation evidence,
and theoretical modeling into a coherent understanding of technological and social complexity
in pharaonic metalworking.
In the past, the investigation into ancient Egyptian metallurgy had the following gaps in its
historiography:
• The gap between science and heritage: Former investigations carried out thorough
chemical/archaeometrical studies of the metals found but failed to relate the scientific
results to the manufacturing process as well as the working environment of the metal
workers.
• The gap between iconography and materiality: While tombs contained imagery
concerning the metal work, it was viewed more as artistic expression or burial ritual
instead of correlating it with material reality found at excavation sites.
• The focus on final products: Formerly, the studies concentrated more on the chemical
analysis of the final luxury products and not the chain of operation discovered at
industrial smelting sites.
Therefore, this paper intends to answer two questions:
• To what extent do the archaeological remains at Wadi Nasab—such as furnace batteries
and metallurgical tools—materially validate the technical “chaîne opératoire” depicted
in Old Kingdom tomb iconography?
7
Wadi Dara is located at the north of the Eastern Desert. It extends into the Gulf of Suez, north of Gebel el-Zeit.
The copper mines are located at approximately 50 km from the coast. See: (Castel, Mathieu, Pouit, El-Hawari,
Shaaban, Hellal, Abdallah & Ossama, 1996, 15).
Inherited Practices: The Heritage of Metalworking in Ancient Egypt between Techniques and Iconography
32
• How does the evidence of large-scale, state-organized production at Wadi Nasab
illustrate the continuity and evolution of Egyptian metallurgical knowledge from a
specialized craft into a centrally managed industrial enterprise?
2. Methods
The proposed research will take a holistic approach by integrating knowledge on heritage and
science through combining archaeological finds with the iconography of ancient Egyptian
tombs. The study will combine the latest discoveries made during the 2021-2025 Egyptian
mission in Wadi Nasab, which uncovered large-scale copper smelting facilities, administrative
structures, and highly evolved metallurgical centers, with the heritage preserved in
metalworking scenes in tombs dating back to the Old and New Kingdoms. Through combining
physical archaeological finds with the imagery and textual heritage in the tombs, the study hopes
to further understand the history and socio-economic background of ancient Egypt’s
metalworking tradition.
For the purposes of the archaeological stratigraphic analysis, the team will use data obtained
from the excavation conducted in 2021-2025 of the Egyptian mission at the Wadi Nasab
archaeological site to analyze the metallurgical installations, the slag waste material, and other
toolkits used. Although the industrial nature and completeness of the metallurgical process are
proven by large quantities of slag materials, the transition periods between furnace shapes such
as U-shaped, shaft, and pear-shaped are still hypothetical.
Iconographic correlation is through examining scenes of metalworking and the texts that
accompany them in the tombs of Old Kingdom figures like Mereruka, Ty, and Ankhmahor, to
trace continuity in technology and ensure that the use of tools in the pictures was practical.
Technology reconstruction makes use of discoveries of furnace batteries and special tools such
as the tuyère and crushing equipment in order to chart the whole process of making copper
starting from breaking up the rock until purification of the metal.
3. History of the Excavations of Wadi Nasab
Several travelers have described the extensive slag heaps produced by copper smelting in the
area, rising 6 to 8 feet (about 1.8 to 2.4 meters) high and covering an estimated area of either
500 by 300 feet (approximately 150 by 90 meters) or 250 by 200 yards (about 230 by 180
meters). According to Weill (Weill 1908, p. 126), the presence of water in the Wadi Nasab
valley and the ample fuel supply provided by acacia trees likely explain why copper ore, brought
from elsewhere, was smelted at this site. Indeed, the abundant spring in Wadi Nasab accounts
for the palm garden photographed by Petrie (Petrie 1906, p. 27).
Bauerman (Bauerman 1868, p. 29–30) offers a particularly detailed account of these slag heaps,
noting that “numerous clay tuyère-nozzles, with an air passage of about three-quarters of an
inch in diameter, were found” among them. The only structures that might have served as
furnaces were two small enclosures of unequal size, the larger measuring approximately six feet
(about 1.8 meters) square.
In addition, Flinders Petrie (Petrie 1906, p. 51–53) identified slag heaps and surface evidence
of copper mining. Subsequent investigations by Egyptian archaeologists in the mid-20th century
documented furnaces and mining remains, yet systematic stratigraphic excavations did not
begin until the new mission started its work in 2021.
In 2021, the first dedicated Egyptian archaeological mission of the Supreme Council of
Antiquities (SCA), led by Dr. Hesham Hussein, set out to examine the extent and organization
of copper production at Wadi Nasab. Excavations uncovered extensive slag deposits, smelting
workshops, and remarkably well-preserved metallurgical installations. Continued fieldwork in
Ahmed Mansour & Hesham Hussein
pg. 33
2025 revealed a large metallurgical complex in the southern sector of the site, comprising
multiple layers of furnaces that represent successive phases of copper production. These
stratified remains attest to the site’s continuous occupation and industrial use from the Old
Kingdom through the New Kingdom and into the Nabataean Period (between the 4th and 2nd
centuries BCE), highlighting Wadi Nasab’s enduring significance as one of ancient Egypt’s
principal centers for copper production.
In addition, metallurgical tools such as tuyères (clay pipes used to direct air into furnaces; see
below), grinding stones, and ore-crushing tools (Fig. 2) were discovered. These artifacts provide
direct evidence of ore production methods, fuel management, and the precise control of airflow
essential for reaching the high temperatures (see below) required in copper smelting. The
standardized design of these tools indicates an organized production system operated by skilled
craftsmen familiar with metallurgical techniques.
The excavations also revealed production remains such as crucibles, slag heaps, and semi-
finished products, including copper cakes, prills, blister copper, and matte. The coexistence of
waste materials and refined outputs demonstrates that the chaîne opératoire, the complete
copper production sequence from ore processing and smelting to refining, was conducted
entirely on site.
4. Interpretation and Significance of Metallurgical Technology: Between
Iconography and Technical Practice, Connecting Heritage to Science
and Science to Heritage
There is a development of metallurgical practices in the images of the Egyptian metalworking
process, especially those involving the construction and use of furnaces, crucibles, and other
related heating devices. There is a process of continual development and improvement in
terms of pyrotechnic knowledge and its application. This paper aims to analyze three key tools
that were used in the production of metals through metallurgical techniques; these are the
crucible, furnace, and bellow pipes.
8
4.1 Crucible and Furnace (Fig. 3)
During the Old Kingdom, furnaces typically assumed a funnel-shaped formation, activated
through the use of heating tubes to generate airflow. The most detailed depiction of this type
occurs in the tomb of Mereruka (LS10, Teti Cemetery, PM III. 525-534) (Fig. 4), where two
smelting pots are shown placed back-to-back within a funnel-shaped structure. A comparable
furnace appears in the tomb of Ty (D22, PM III, 468-478), although only its exterior is
represented. Overall, Old Kingdom furnaces consistently conform to this characteristic shape,
which reflects an early, yet standardized, approach to metallurgical practice (Garènne-Marot
1985, p. 85–100).
The use of crucibles in the Egyptian metallurgy industry could have been inspired by the
Mesopotamians, who developed these objects much earlier. The technology behind their design
can be considered in the context of general developments in metallurgy in the ancient Near East.
Tylecote asserts that the earliest furnaces were based on either natural or forced draft
technology.
9
He observed that by the fourth millennium BCE, potters had mastered the
8
To read more on the role of tomb scenes in reconstructing our knowledge of ancient Egyptian metallurgy, cf.
(Mansour, 2016).
9
Forced draught: a draught mechanically brought (e.g. by fan or blower). Cf. Indexed Foundry Dictionary (1979),
527, no. 6128 (1). The induced or natural draught is a draught brought by the difference in temperature, hence, the
density and the pressure of the inner and outer atmospheres. Cf. Indexed Foundry Dictionary (1979), 527, no. 6127 (1).
Inherited Practices: The Heritage of Metalworking in Ancient Egypt between Techniques and Iconography
34
technique of creating induced draft furnaces with high enough temperatures to extract copper
(Tylecote & Boydell, 1978, p. 28). On the other hand, the earliest forced draft furnaces were
probably very basic stone bowl furnaces blown via one or several tuyères, as seen at Timna,
10
where furnaces of this sort were being utilized even during the Chalcolithic Age (around 4500
to 2500 BCE) (Tylecote & Boydell, 1978, p. 28). Such facts can help establish a comparative
perspective on the development of furnace technology in Egypt and the possible spread of
pyrotechnological ideas in the eastern Mediterranean and the Near East regions.
By the Middle and New Kingdoms, Egyptian furnaces exhibit clear signs of technical
advancement and improved thermal control. In this context, the new excavations at Wadi Nasab
provide particularly compelling evidences of such innovation. Several types of furnaces
including U-shaped furnaces, shaft furnaces, and pear-shaped pit furnaces, all constructed from
mudbrick, stone linings, and clay components, were revealed. These furnaces demonstrate
careful adaptation to ore quality and available fuel sources, while evidence of in situ burning
confirms their active use for copper smelting. The coexistence of multiple furnace types at the
site suggests an ongoing process of experimentation and technical optimization, emblematic of
a dynamic metallurgical tradition.
A review of Old Kingdom metalworking scenes reveals that crucible handling methods
remained quite simple during this period (Garènne-Marot, 1985, p. 92). Petrie noted that
Egyptians employed a fragile paste to form crucibles, resulting in vessels that would readily
dissolve, making it impractical to lift them when filled with molten metal. Consequently, the
crucible had to be emptied by rolling it forward on its rounded base. For this reason, the crucible
was designed as a hemisphere extended upward, which facilitated tilting in the fire, provided a
secure grip for manipulation, and included a spout to allow metal to be poured efficiently
(Petrie, 1906, 51, p. 162, fig. 161).
Deep crucibles with spouts thus characterize Middle Kingdom metalworking, whereas
shallower and broader vessels became more common in the New Kingdom. In functional terms,
crucibles generally featured a rounded base to facilitate handling, a spout for controlled pouring
of molten metal, and a narrow neck designed to retain heat and limit oxygen absorption—
preventing porosity in the final product.
4.2 Blowing-Pipes
By the end of EBA II–III (ca. 2800–2700 BCE), notable technological progress occurred in
Sinai. Surveys by Pfeiffer revealed clay nozzles (tuyères) at several sites, (Fig. 5) indicating the
use of artificially supplied air in smelting. This innovation, scarcely visible in the Early Bronze
Age, became pronounced in the Late Bronze Age. The sites of Wadi Ahmar 1039 and Wadi
Zaghra 1041 represent the earliest known examples of such metallurgical activity in Sinai.
11
10
The Timna Valley, north of the Gulf of Aqaba, was a major center of ancient copper mining and smelting, active
from the fourth millennium BCE to Roman times. Rich in copper ores, it preserves extensive archaeological
remains from Egyptian New Kingdom to Iron Age and later industrial activities.
11
It lies at the eastern feet of the Hus e-Deba massif, to the south of Wadi Riqeita and it dates back to the end of
EBA II or III (ca 2700-2300 BC). It consists of a settlement with annexed melting place. The size of the site is
about 100 x 60. Cf. (Pfeiffer, 2013, 77).
Ahmed Mansour & Hesham Hussein
pg. 35
Blowpipes often had clay tips to concentrate airflow, helping achieve melting temperatures. The
charcoal was kept compact with a wooden stick to maintain furnace intensity, as seen in the
scenes from the tomb of Ankhmahor (PM III. 512- 515).
12
However, Tylecote noted that
blowing tubes were unsuitable for the high temperatures required in metal reduction and
melting, as they could fuse with the molten metal. He also argued that the ancient Egyptians
had to employ bellows as early as the Old Kingdom to melt metals effectively (Tylecote, 1981,
p. 111). Moreover, the hearths employed for smelting in ancient Egypt were constructed using
charcoal, a fuel readily available in the eastern desert and Sinai (Fig. 6) (Scheel, 1989, p. 22).
The charcoal was especially prized for its ability to attain the high temperatures necessary for
metallurgical work, making it the fuel of choice for ancient metalworkers. Experimental
research has demonstrated that, with the use of a blowpipe, a single person can elevate the
temperature of a charcoal hearth to above 1100°C (Rehder, 2000, p. 76), underscoring the
effectiveness of this technique in achieving the intense heat required for smelting (Rehder, 2000,
p. 76).
Indeed, the architectural finds in Wadi Nasab, particularly the stone building reused as a
workshop, reflect high state involvement. The scale of slag deposits and furnaces suggests
mobilization of large, specialized labor forces organized for ore extraction, smelting, fuel
production, and transport. This underscores copper’s strategic importance for Egypt’s economy,
military, and symbolic use.
The documentation of the various stages of metal production at the site, along with evidence of
administrative oversight and labor organization, indicates a well-structured and centrally
managed industrial operation, designed to optimize resource extraction and processing
efficiency. Strategically located near other mining areas such as Serabit el-Khadim and well-
connected to coastal embarkation points like Tell Ras Budran, Wadi Nasab played a crucial role
in transporting raw and processed materials to the Nile Valley, embedding it within Egypt's
broader economic and administrative networks.
5. Discussion: Linking Practice and Theory at Wadi Nasab
The long-term occupation at Wadi Nasab, which ranges from the Old Kingdom (circa 2686 to
2181 BCE) to the New Kingdom (circa 1550 to 1070 BCE), illustrates an interaction between
technological stability and industrial development. In archaeological layers at the site, there is
evidence of recurring construction of furnaces through alternating layers of ash and refractory
bricks, as well as changing arrangements of workshops; however, the basic technology for
copper processing, such as the bowl furnace process and natural air flow, was consistently
preserved. Not only did Wadi Nasab serve as a hub for industrial activities, but it also
maintained a continuous technological culture, in which gradual adjustments were made based
on accumulated knowledge.
The archaeological materials from Wadi Nasab are another testimony to these developments,
which make it possible to recreate chaîne opératoire in great detail. Tuyères of ceramic material,
preserved intact and having identical sizes (bore diameters are about 2–3 cm) suggest effective
use of air flow for slag separation, while tool kits used for ore crushing (stone mortar) and ingot
production (bone-handled chisels) speak for a refined process chain. The change in the scale of
metallurgy practiced in Wadi Nasab is also connected with the development of more complex
technologies and, probably, division of labor, shifting from an artisanal level, characteristic of
12
See on this the representation in the tomb of Ankhmhor: a simple wooden stick of medium length could have
served the purpose to act as the utensil to keep the fire together.
Inherited Practices: The Heritage of Metalworking in Ancient Egypt between Techniques and Iconography
36
similar sites during the Old Kingdom period (Timna), to the state-run industrial enterprises of
the Middle Kingdom.
Combining the data from the study of physical traces with iconography and ancient texts
provides more insight into the industrial nature of the ancient Egypt state, in particular, its
economy based on resource extraction. Location of Wadi Nasab in the south of Sinai (supported
by administrative buildings of local importance with the seal imprints of royal overseers),
combined with the presence of logistics connections with the coast (routes leading through the
area with manure indicating the donkey trails and thus confirming connections with such centers
as Tell Ras Budran), made Wadi Nasab the core of raw material extraction, state domination,
and technological excellence. This is where theory is brought to practice and industrial activity
was crucial for pyramid construction and military conquests, which could be made with metal
weapons.
Based on the data obtained during excavations in 2021-2025 (the discovery of several smelting
workshops with several furnaces, various-sized copper ingots, tuyères for regulating air flow,
significant slag heaps as evidence of large-scale activity), it becomes clear that the techniques
of metallurgy found at this site closely correspond to the description of ancient Egyptian
iconography and texts, particularly Old Kingdom tomb paintings. In conclusion, this makes it
possible to say that Wadi Nasab was one of the key metallurgy centers of Egypt, and ancient
kings directly supervised it and resource management there.
6. Conclusion: Wadi Nasab as a Keystone of Egyptian Metallurgy
The interdisciplinarity of the studies undertaken at the Wadi Nasab site through
archaeometallurgy, stratigraphy, and iconographic synthesis provides a revolutionary
understanding of the process of ancient Egyptian metallurgy, providing a bridge between
scientific historiography and heritage. The correlation of the evidence obtained from the
excavations conducted between 2021-2025 and the iconography in tombs (e.g., similarity of the
tuyère structures to those illustrated in the reliefs in the tomb of Ty) proves that the images in
the tombs were, in fact, accurate visual depictions of the standardized production processes.
Stratigraphic analysis at Wadi Nasab highlights that the knowledge of metallurgy was a living
tradition that scaled with the demands of the state, evolving from Old Kingdom proto-industrial
periods to furnace batteries during the Middle Kingdom. Metallurgy started as an expertized
specialization, as proved by the findings of slag in early layers, and then transformed into a
centralized industry managed by the royal bureaucracy (administration seals), connected
through trade logistics with places like Tell Ras Budran. It was crucial for Egypt's economic
prosperity and military strength, which provided copper for tools and weapons needed for
military campaigns towards Nubia and the Levant. Field archaeology, smelting experiments,
and socio-economic modeling prove the extraction and use of mineral resources in Sinai.
Wadi Nasab is, therefore, an exemplar example of how ancient Egypt was a melting pot of
social complexity and technological advancement. Through its preserved furnaces, abundance
of slag deposits, and artisan precision, Wadi Nasab demonstrates the timeless technical genius
of the pharaohs, surviving through all subsequent dynasties. This makes Wadi Nasab one of the
key examples of metal production in the ancient Near East, thus making it subject to future
research (isotopic analysis of the ore origins).
7. Acknowledgement
I would like to thank William Joy for accepting proofreading and correcting the English
language of this article.
Ahmed Mansour & Hesham Hussein
pg. 37
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