QALAMOS
Heritage Studies
Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 38-49
Published: June 2025
ID : QALAMOS.1.1.6.2025.004 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18435815
One of the Most Prominent
Landmarks of Our Scientific Heritage:
Sheikh Muhyiddin’s Sāqiyah in
Damascus
Ghazwan Yaghi
gyaghi2@gmail.com
PhD in Islamic Architecture and Arts,
Leiden University, Institute of Area Studies (LIAS),, Faculty Member.
Abstract
Sheikh Muhyiddin’s Sāqiyah in Damascus exemplifies Islamic scientific
heritage, showcasing the advanced engineering and innovation achieved
during the Islamic Golden Age. The Sāqiyah, a mechanical water-lifting
device, demonstrates the importance of water in Islamic culture and its
association with purity and spiritual practices. Designed by the notable
engineer Taqi al-Din al-Shami in the 16th century, the structure combines
art, science, and spirituality, demonstrating the Islamic world’s
commitment to public welfare through technology. The Sāqiyah served
various community needs, providing water for mosques, hospitals, and
irrigation.
Keywords
Sāqiyah;
Damascus;
Sheikh Muhyiddin;
Mamluk period;
Islamic architecture
Conflict of Interest: None declared
Funding: Not applicable
Author(s) Contributions:
Author 1. Ghazwan Yaghi
Received: Feb. 10, 2025
Accepted: April 25, 2025
Published: June 30, 2025
38
Ghazwan Yaghi
1. Introduction
The sāqiyah (Arabic:
ةيقاس
) is a mechanical water-lifting device and a place for drinking water.
It is a channel used to irrigate land and crops. In Islamic architecture, a wheel or machine is
installed over the mouth of a well, a channel, or a small watercourse (like a small riverbed) to
lift water using the wheel. (It is worth mentioning that the Nāʿūra differs from the sāqiyah in
that the former consists of only one wheel that performs all three functions of the waterwheels
of the sāqiyahs: pushing, scooping, and lifting. They are also built on the courses of large,
flowing rivers. Researchers confirm that the first Nāʿūra appeared in Syria during the Aramaic
era. Archaeological evidence, such as a mosaic depicting a Nāʿūra, discovered in the ancient
city of Apamea, located 55 km north of Hama, indicates that the Nāʿūra was used on the
Orontes River around the second century AD. The use of Nāʿūras then developed and spread
throughout Arab and Western civilizations. (Yaghi, 2011, p. 173).
The sāqiyah (waterwheel) typically consists of containers or buckets that scoop water from its
small watercourse, and when rotating, empty it into a unique basin connected to a channel or
waterway. The water then flows through this channel to the area to be irrigated or supplied.
The rotation process is conducted by two interlocking gears, one horizontal and the other
vertical, connected to the body of the sāqiyah or its frame by a horizontal column (Yaghi, 2011,
pp. 169-172).
Among the many sāqiyahs that once dotted the landscapes of the Islamic world in general but
in Syria in particular, the sāqiyah of Sheikh Muhyiddin in Damascus holds a special place.
Designed by the renowned engineer Taqi al-Din Muhammad bin Maʿruf al-Rasid al-Shami in
the 16th century, this remarkable structure served a practical purpose. It symbolized the fusion
of art, science, and spirituality in Islamic architecture. Today, it remains one of the most
prominent landmarks of our scientific heritage, reflecting the advanced engineering and
cultural values of its time. This sāqiyah is a testament to Islamic civilization’s ingenuity and
scientific achievements.
2. The Historical and Cultural Context of Sāqiyahs
The sāqiyah has its roots in ancient water-lifting technologies, but during the Islamic Golden
Age, these devices reached new heights of sophistication. In Islamic architecture, sāqiyahs
were not merely functional structures but also expressions of the Islamic emphasis on water as
a source of life, purity, and spiritual renewal. Water played a central role in Islamic daily life,
from ablutions before prayer to irrigation gardens and crops. The sāqiyah symbolized this
sacred relationship between water and human life.Waterwheels (sāqiyahs) are a form of social
welfare infrastructure, much like bathhouses (hammams), hospitals (bīmāristāns), public
fountains (sabīls), and mills (nāʿūras). These structures represent a vital category of buildings
deeply tied to Islamic religious and social principles. They embody the spirit of communal
solidarity and mutual support promoted by Islam, reflecting its vision of societal well-being on
multiple levels (Yaghi, 2011, pp. 136, 169, 175).
Sāqiyahs were built either as standalone structures or connected to luxurious palaces, hospitals
(bīmāristāns), mosques, and large Sufi lodges (takāyā). They played a significant role in
providing water for Muslims’ needs, particularly personal and family hygiene. Water is not
only a source of life for Muslims but also carries a purifying significance rooted in Islamic
religious practices, such as ablution (wuḍūʾ) and ritual purification (ghusl) before prayer.
In Islamic architecture, particularly in Syria, sāqiyahs operated in two ways:
•
Via Animal Power: The first gear is horizontal, and the second is vertical, connected
to the body of the sāqiyah or its frame by a horizontal column. The movement of
pg. 39
One of the Most Prominent Landmarks of Our Scientific Heritage: Sheikh Muhyiddin’s Sāqiyah in Damascus
animals in a circular path rotates a vertical column, which in turn operates
the sāqiyah and lifts water from the river or well to a designated basin (Rizq, 2000,
p.137), Fig.1.
Figure 1: A model of the animal-powered waterwheel. © Author’s Collection
•
Via Water Power: The first vertical gear is fixed directly on the surface of the river
or waterway. The water flow rotates the gear and then moves a second horizontal gear.
This, in turn, drives another gear or a chain of buckets that scoop water and lift it to
the designated basin.
This type of sāqiyah saw significant development in Syria starting from the 7th century AH
(13th century AD) when the Arab scholar Al-Jazari. (530 AH - 1136 AD / 603 AH - 1206 AD).
Badīʿ al-Zamān Abū al-ʿIzz ibn Ismāʿīl al-Razzāz, known as Al-Jazari, was born in the Jazira
region of eastern Syria and later served as the chief engineer in Diyarbakır, northern Jazira. Al-
Jazari is regarded as one of the greatest engineers and chemists in history. He designed
numerous highly significant machines, many of which were previously unknown anywhere in
the world. Among his inventions were water-raising machines, water clocks with automatic
alarm systems, valve systems, automatic control mechanisms, and many others, all of which
he detailed in his remarkable work, (The Compendium on the Theory and Practice of the
Mechanical Arts), (al-Jāmiʿ bayn al-ʿIlm wa al-ʿAmal al-Nāfiʿ fī Ṣināʿat al-Ḥiyal), (Ceccarelli
2010, pp. 1-21), (Hill 1991a, pp. 64-69). Donald R. Hill, an engineer and technology historian
known for his pivotal 1974 translation of The Book of Knowledge, emphasized that the
significance of al-Jazari’s contributions “cannot be overstated (Elices 2020). He wrote a
mechanical description of this saqiya in his book "The Compendium on the Theory and Practice
of the Mechanical Arts” (al-Jāmiʿ bayn al-ʿIlm wa al-ʿAmal al-Nāfiʿ fī Ṣināʿat al-Ḥiyal) at the
beginning of the 13th century AD. He also created a miniature model of this pump/saqiya.
Later, in the 10th century AH (16th century AD), the engineer Taqi al-Din Muhammad bin
Maʿruf al-Rasid al-Shami introduced notable improvements in the precision and operation of
these machines. The sāqiyah remained in operation, albeit partially, until the early 1970s.
In the Al-Salihiyah neighborhood, northwest of Damascus (Fig. 2), the sāqiyah of Sheikh
Muhyiddin was a standalone structure and part of a broader network of water systems that
sustained the city’s inhabitants and its lush gardens. Damascus, known as the "City of Jasmine,"
owes much of its beauty and fertility to the Barada River and its tributaries, including the Yazid
River, on which the sāqiyah was built. The sāqiyah not only provided water for the shrine of
40
Ghazwan Yaghi
the revered mystic Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi but also served the surrounding neighborhoods, takiyy
Al-Salemya (Sufi lodge), and bīmāristā al-Qaymari (hospital), adjacent to this sāqiyah, which
was established in 1254 AD-603 AH, highlighting its role in supporting both spiritual and
communal life.
Figure 2: The general location of the Al-Salihiyya Neighborhood in the city of Damascus.
(Eychenne, Meier, & Vigouroux, 2018)
3. The Designer of this Sāqiyah
This sāqiyah (Fig. 3), which is also known as the "Nāʿūrat Sheikh Muhyiddin," was designed
by the engineer Taqi al-Din al-Shami. He was a polymath whose engineering, mathematics,
and astronomy contributions were groundbreaking. He was born in Damascus in 931 AH (1525
AD) and died in 993 AH (1585 AD), (Taqi al-Din Ibn Ma’ruf, n.d.). Among his famous
inventions was a machine for rotating skewers for grilling meat over a fire, which rotated
automatically without animal power. He also contributed to establishing the Istanbul
Astronomical Observatory and served as a judge in Nablus. He authored several works,
including Kitab al-Ṭuruq al-Saniyya fi al-Ālāt al-Rūḥāniyya (The Sublime Methods in
Spiritual Machines), (Hill, 1978b, pp.117-118). This book is significant because it fills a gap
in the history of Arabic technology, particularly in mechanical engineering, which details
advanced mechanical devices and their applications. Taqi al-Din completed this book in 1552
CE, predating Agostino Ramelli’s work (1588 AD) and even earlier than the works of European
engineers like Cardano. Taqi al-Din also described the screw pump, which became widely used
in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries (Al-Hassan, 1987).
Taqi al-Din’s design for the sāqiyah incorporated innovative features that set it apart from
earlier models. His use of interlocking gears, vertical and horizontal wheels, and a chain-and-
bucket system demonstrated a deep understanding of mechanical principles. The sāqiyah was
capable of lifting water from the Yazid River to a height of approximately twelve meters, a
remarkable feat of engineering for its time. Taqi al-Din’s work on the sāqiyah was part of a
pg. 41
One of the Most Prominent Landmarks of Our Scientific Heritage: Sheikh Muhyiddin’s Sāqiyah in Damascus
broader tradition of Arabic mechanical engineering, exemplified by earlier scholars like Al-
Jazari, whose designs for water-lifting devices influenced generations of engineers (Tekeli,
2008, pp. 2080–2081).
Figure 3: A general view of the
upper section of Sheikh Muhyiddin’s
Waterwheel\sāqiyah in Damascus.
© Author’s Collection
4. The building story of the Sāqiyah
Damascus preserves a unique example of Taqi al-Din’s work: the sāqiyah of Sheikh
Muhyiddin, one of the most prominent landmarks of Arab, Islamic, and global scientific
heritage. This sāqiyah is located in the Al-Salihiyya neighborhood northwest of the old city of
Damascus. Situated in an alley known as the Alley of Nāʿūras, it still exists south of Sheikh
Muhyiddin Mosque (Fig. 4). Al-Salihiyya emerged as an essential residential area in the sixth
century AH (12th century AD) and became home to many significant structures during the
Ayyubid and Mamluk periods.
Figure 4
:
The general location
of Sheikh Muhyiddin’s sāqiyah
\Waterwheel in Al-Salihiyya
Neighborhood, among other
historical buildings in Al-
Salihiyah. Google Maps.
42
Ghazwan Yaghi
In 1157 AD-552 AH, Badīʿ al-Zamān Abū al-ʿIzz ibn Ismāʿīl ibn al-Razzāz, known as Al-
Jazari, came to Damascus at the request of Sheikh Abū ʿUmar Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn
Qudāmah al-Maqdisī, who founded the Al-ʿUmariyya School that same year. Al-Jazari
designed a waterwheel (sāqiyah) to serve the school and supervised its construction. This
waterwheel was a model of the chain pump, which Al-Jazari later named the "Chain and Bucket
Pump" (miḍkhāna al-zanjīr wa al-dalw) in his book The Compendium on the Theory and
Practice of the Mechanical Arts, written in 1205 AD.
In 1254 AD- 653 AH, the Al-ʿUmariyya waterwheel\sāqiyah was replicated as part of the
construction project for the al-Qaymari Hospital (Bīmāristān al-Qaymari). According to the
account of Ibn Ṭūlūn in his description of the al-Qaymari Hospital, it is inevitable that a
dedicated waterwheel was attached to the hospital at the time of its construction to supply it
with water. This waterwheel was similar to the one described by Al-Jazari in his
aforementioned book.
When the Ottoman army entered Damascus in 922 AH (1516 AD), Sultan Selim I ordered the
construction of a mosque and a dome over the tomb of the Sufi Muhyī al-Dīn ibn al-ʿArabī
(known as the Khānqāh Mosque) in the neighborhood now called "Ḥayy al-Madāris" (the
Neighborhood of Schools), adjacent to the Al-Qaymari Hospital. This mosque was the first
Ottoman architectural project in Damascus. Later, the Sulaymāniyya Takiyya was built
opposite the Ibn al-ʿArabī Mosque. To ensure a steady water supply for the mosque and later
for the takiyya, Sultan Selim commissioned the engineer Taqī al-Dīn al-Shāmī to design and
build a waterwheel capable of lifting water to a high level and providing the necessary water
for the mosque, the takiyya, the adjacent hospital, and possibly the surrounding neighborhood,
which had seen numerous attempts over the centuries to raise water for its buildings. These
earlier attempts included water-lifting structures commonly referred to
as nāʿūras (waterwheels), leading to the area being known as "Ziqāq al-Nawāʿīr" (the Alley of
Waterwheels). Taqī al-Dīn completed the Yazīd River waterwheel. Dr. Aḥmad al-Ḥassan
suggests that the remaining waterwheel may be the same one installed at the Al-Qaymari
Hospital during its construction. If so, this would mean that Taqī al-Dīn rebuilt, developed, and
updated this waterwheel, which remains today (Fig. 5).
Figure 5:
The image shows the close
relationship between the
site of the sāqiyah and the
Mosque of Muhyiddin
Ibn Arabi.
5. Similarities Between Al-Jazari’s Sāqiyah and
Taqī al-Dīn al-Shāmī’s Sāqiyah
A visual inspection reveals similarities between Al-Jazari’s design for the water-raising
machine in his manuscript The Compendium on the Theory and Practice of the Mechanical
Arts and Taqī al-Dīn al-Shāmī’s sāqiyah, known as the Sāqiyah of Sheikh Muhyī al-Dīn. In the
illustration drawn by Al-Jazari, his waterwheel operates by water falling onto scoops that rotate
pg. 43
One of the Most Prominent Landmarks of Our Scientific Heritage: Sheikh Muhyiddin’s Sāqiyah in Damascus
a wheel. In contrast, Taqī al-Dīn’s waterwheel relies on long wooden boards distributed around
the wheel’s circumference, which rotate by the force of horizontal water flow.
It is worth noting that the basic design in Al-Jazari’s manuscript was a prototype. It consisted
of a basin made of marble and copper, along with a set of scoops that rotated by the force of
falling water. The presence of an animal in the manuscript symbolizes that this model mimics
the waterwheels that animals traditionally powered at the time (Fig. 6).
Figure 6: A model of Al-Jazari’s sāqiyah
described in his book, "The
Compendium on the Theory and
Practice of the Mechanical Arts."
(Taqi al-Din Ibn Ma’ruf, n.d.)
6. Mechanism of the Sāqiyah
The sāqiyah of Sheikh Muhyiddin is a masterpiece of both form and function. Its structure
consists of a tall tower housing a spiral staircase, reminiscent of the minarets of Islamic
mosques. At the top of the tower, a refurbished wooden canopy shelters the intricate
machinery of the sāqiyah.
Figure 7: The lower wheel of Sheikh
Muhyiddin’s sāqiyah on the Yazid
River. © Author’s Collection
The device is powered by a vertical wheel mounted on the Yazid River (the river flows at the
foot of Mount Qasioun and is attributed to Yazid ibn Muawiyah, who renovated it and turned
it into a river) which rotates through the force of the flowing water (Fig. 7). This wheel drives
a series of interlocking gears and chains, which lift water using a series of buckets (Fig. 8).
44
Ghazwan Yaghi
Figure 8: A cross-section of the moving
and fixed parts of Sheikh
Muhyiddin’s Waterwheel.
https://kattler.dk/schiolers/uk/index.html
Sheikh Muhyiddin’s sāqiyah consists of a vertical wheel (Fig. 9-1) on the Yazid River, rotated
by water flow. The wheel drives a vertical toothed gear (called lakām-م
ا
كللا) (Fig. 9-2), which
meshes with a horizontal gear (Fig. 9-3). This horizontal gear, in turn, rotates a vertical column
(called ṣārī-ير
ا
صلا) (Fig. 9-4). At the top of this column is another horizontal gear (called
ṭabaq-قبطلا) (Fig. 9-5), which drives a vertical gear (called
liqāṭa-ةط
ا
قللا) (Fig. 9-6). This vertical
gear rotates a vertical wheel (called māwiya-ةيو
ا
م
لا) (Fig. 9-7) via a horizontal axle. The māwiya
drives
two long iron chains with buckets spaced 60 cm apart (Fig. 9-8,9), lifting water from the
river level to a height of approximately twelve meters.
Figure 9: A cross-section showing all the waterwheel parts and its working mechanism.
(© G. Yaghi, 2011).
The machinery of the sāqiyah is supported by a tall tower (Fig. 10) with a spiral staircase
reminiscent of minaret staircases, allowing access to the upper mechanisms, which are
covered by a refurbished wooden canopy. At the top of the tower is a small basin where the
buckets empty the lifted water (Fig. 11).
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One of the Most Prominent Landmarks of Our Scientific Heritage: Sheikh Muhyiddin’s Sāqiyah in Damascus
Figure 11: The upper wheel and the bucket chain
© Author’s Collection
Figure 10: A cross-section of the mechanical parts and the waterwheel’s working mechanism.
(© The archives of the Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums – Syria)
The water then flows through an elevated channel supported by high arches to a specially
constructed reservoir. From there, the water is distributed to the mosque of Muhyiddin Ibn
Arabi and Salimiyya Takāyā and the Al-Qaymari Hospital/bīmāristān (Fig. 12).
Figure 12: General view of the waterwheel and channel connected
to the Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Mosque. © Author’s Collection
46
Ghazwan Yaghi
A channel was also extended to the mosque’s ablution pool, and water taps for ablution were
installed along the reservoir wall, the remains of which are still visible. The large reservoir,
about twenty-five meters above the river level, is built of stone and can be seen from the main
road separating the mosque and the takiyya (Fig. 13). Additionally, small buckets were attached
to the perimeter of the vertical wheel to lift water to a lower height, sufficient to supply a nearby
house and garden (Fig. 9-9).
Figure 13: horizontal view of the upper section of the waterwheel and the water channel
connected to the Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Mosque. (@ The archives of the Directorate-General
of Antiquities and Museums – Syria)
7. The Scientific and Social Significance of the Sāqiyah
The sāqiyah of Sheikh Muhyiddin is a remarkable example of Islamic scientific heritage,
highlighting the advanced engineering and innovation of the Islamic Golden Age. It reflects
the Islamic emphasis on water as a source of life, purity, and spiritual renewal, aligning with
religious practices like ablution and irrigation. The sāqiyah demonstrates the Islamic world’s
mastery of mechanical principles and its commitment to improving society through technology.
Providing water to mosques, hospitals, and communities embodied the Islamic values of
charity and public welfare. Today, this sāqiyah stands as a testament to the enduring legacy of
Islamic scientific achievements and their impact on global heritage.
Also, this sāqiyah was more than just a technological marvel; it also symbolized its time’s
spiritual and social values. The shrine of Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi, one of the most influential Sufi
mystics in Islamic history, attracted pilgrims and scholars from across the Islamic world. The
sāqiyah ensured that these visitors and the local community had access to clean water for
drinking, ablutions, and irrigation.
The sāqiyah also reflected the Islamic emphasis on charity and public welfare. Providing water
to the hospital and the takiyya supported the care of the sick and the spiritual education of Sufi
disciples. In this way, the sāqiyah embodied the Islamic ideal of using science and technology
to improve society.
8. Preservation and Legacy
The sāqiyah of Sheikh Muhyiddin remained in operation for more than five hundred years,
maintained by generations of caretakers who ensured its continued functionality. However, by
the 1970s, the sāqiyah had fallen into disrepair and ceased functioning for several reasons: first,
the lack of transparent maintenance budgets, which is why some of the buckets are now made
of tin sheets; second, the official introduction of water from “Ain al-Fijeh” into areas previously
pg. 47
One of the Most Prominent Landmarks of Our Scientific Heritage: Sheikh Muhyiddin’s Sāqiyah in Damascus
fed by the waterwheel; and finally, the decline in the flow of river water after the extension of
Ain al-Fijeh, which resulted in the withdrawal of water and its diversion through pipes and
aqueducts, distributing it over a larger area; and finally, the pollution of the river, rendering it
unfit for drinking, after its water had previously been used for cooking and washing.
Today, the General Directorate of Antiquities in Syria and the Damascus Governorate are
working to restore this historic landmark. Their efforts include removing encroachments,
repairing the machinery, and developing a comprehensive plan to return the sāqiyah to working
condition.
Once restored, the sāqiyah will serve as a testament to the Islamic world’s scientific and
architectural achievements, as a tourist attraction, and as an educational resource. It will remind
future generations of the importance of preserving our scientific heritage and the enduring
legacy of figures like Taqi al-Din al-Shami.
9. Conclusion
The sāqiyah of Sheikh Muhyiddin in Damascus is a shining example of the ingenuity and
creativity of Islamic civilization. Its intricate design, advanced engineering, and cultural
significance make it one of the most prominent landmarks of our scientific heritage. As efforts
to restore and preserve this remarkable structure continue, it symbolizes the enduring
connection between science, spirituality, and society in the Islamic world. By studying and
celebrating such achievements, we honor the contributions of our ancestors and inspire future
generations to build on their legacy.
48
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