The Medicinal Plants in Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees

Heritage Studies

Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 50-70

Published: June 2025

ID : QALAMOS.1.1.6.2025.005 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18436206

The Medicinal Plants in Ahmed Pasha

Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees:

Al-La’ali’ Al-Durriya fi Al-Nabatat

wa Al-Ashjar Al-Qadima Al-Misriyya

A Glimpse into Ancient Egyptian Remedies

, Mohamed Hassan Ismaeel

*Azza.Ezzat@bibalex.org

1 Head of Research and Publications Section- Writing and Scripts

Cente- Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt.

2 Writing and Scripts Center-Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt.

Faculty of Archaeology, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt

Ahmed Pasha Kamal was the first Egyptian scholar to write his own ancient

Egyptian dictionary, Le lexique de la langue Egyptienne ancienne totaling 22

volumes, including more than 13,000 hieroglyphic entries translated to French and

Arabic, yet following different methodology. Kamal’s knowledge production was

varied in languages and in targeting audience. He published in Arabic for the

Egyptian people and in French (mainly) and English for westerns. Among his

publications is “The Dictionary of the Ancient Plants and Trees”

بنلا يف ةيردلا ئلل

ةيرصملا ةميدقلا ر

Al-La’ali’ Al-Durriya fi Al-Nabatat wa Al-Ashjar Al-Qadima

Al-Misriyya, which is an encyclopedic work that is considered one of the most

important references in the study of ancient Egyptian flora. Published in the late 19th

century, this dictionary provides comprehensive information about plants used in

ancient Egypt, including their names in hieroglyphics, along with translations into

Arabic and French. The dictionary is organized alphabetically, it includes detailed

descriptions of specific plants and trees, noting their physical characteristics and

traditional uses. Moreover, it outlines how these plants were used in religious rituals,

medicinal treatments, and daily life, such as growing grains, preparing oils, and

crafting wood. In this research paper, we will present an overview of the medicinal

remedies discussed by Kamal in his study of the uses of plants in the Dictionary of

Plants and Trees, to be compared with the terms found in his 22 volumes dictionary.

Plants and Trees;

medicinal plants;

herbal remedies

science heritage.

Conflict of Interest: None declared

Funding: Not applicable

Author(s) Contributions:

Author 1. Azza Ezzat

Author 2. Mohamed Hassan Ismaeel

Received: March 1, 2025

Accepted: April 25, 2025

Published: June 30, 2025

The Medicinal Plants in Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees

Ancient Egypt was familiar with the professions of medicine and pharmacy. Egypt was

renowned for many physicians, the most notable of whom was Hesy-Ra, considered the

oldest Egyptian doctor from the 3rd Dynasty, during the reign of King Djoser (Ghareeb,

2021, p. 2; Nunn 2002, p. 10). He has a prominent wooden relief from his mastaba at

Saqqara, which is now housed in the Egyptian Museum. He held the titles of Royal Scribe,

Chief Physician, and Chief Dentist (Nunn 2002, p. 124). The oldest pharmacy known in

history is the Egyptian pharmacy, where the apothecary played a significant role in

Pharaonic Egypt. They conducted research, performed experiments, and recorded

observations. Egyptian temples sometimes included small laboratories used as storage

areas, where physicians would prepare and compound medicines in designated spaces

within the temples. In these locations, medicinal substances were stored in containers made

of pottery and glass. Not only this, but people also traveled to healing centers in the

Egyptian temples to receive medical care and treatment (Abouelata 2018, p. 121).

The medical papyri of ancient Egypt are invaluable historical documents that provide

insight into the medical practices, beliefs, and treatments used in one of the world’s earliest

civilizations. Among these papyri are Ebers Papyrus, Edwin Smith Papyrus, Harris

Papyrus, and Kahun Gynecological Papyrus (Nunn 2002, 24). They continue to be a rich

source of information for historians, archaeologists, and medical researchers studying the

history of medicine and healing practices. We also obtained our information about

medicine and pharmacy in ancient Egypt from inscriptions, medical ostraca (Nunn 2002,

41), and images. Remarkably, these papyri and ostraca provide a precise depiction of

diseases and the medicines described.

Ahmed Pasha Kamal had prepared a specialized dictionary of plants and trees, which

includes detailed explanations of certain terms related to medicinal plant recipes.

It is worth noting that Woenig (1886) preceded Kamal in writing his dictionary; however,

his work was not a traditional dictionary like Kamal’s, but rather a classification study.

Similarly, Groser (1888) published his work, focusing on plants mentioned in the Bible,

many of which were sourced from Egypt.

Over time, numerous studies emerged, including the two volumes by Keimer (1924; 1984)

and the work of Deines and Grapow (1959), which to some extent, followed Kamal’s

methodology. Additionally, Germer’s (1985) study, as well as others, contributed further

2. Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Methodology in Writing the Dictionary of the

Ancient Plants and Trees

Although the dictionary was published in 1306 AH, which corresponds approximately to

1889 AD, yet Kamal completed it, as recorded at the end of the book, on Thursday, the 9th

of Dhu al-Qi’dah 1307 AH, corresponding to June 26, 1890 (

Al-Sharqāwī 2010, p. 17

It is worth noting that Ahmed Pasha Kamal gifted this book to the Director General of the

Egyptian Museum, E. Grebaut, on “Giza, July 15, 1890”, written in French by hand on the

right-hand page opposite the book’s table of contents. This particular copy of the book is

Azza Ezzat & Mohamed Hassan Ismaeel

preserved in the library of the Egyptian Museum under the number BA.71, and was

previously cataloged as BB.43.

The introduction of the dictionary was divided into two parts. The first part mentioned that

the book was published during the reign of Khedive Muhammad Pasha Tewfik and was

printed by the order of the Minister of Education, Ali Pasha Mubarak. The second part

provided a general introduction to plants, including terrestrial and aquatic plants, flowers,

their various uses, gardens and orchards, and finally, agriculture, its tools, and challenges.

Several trees were mentioned, such as the sycamore, palm, pomegranate, apricot, fig, doum

palm, olive, and vine. Among the plants, it listed wheat, barley, sesame, lupine, fava beans,

lentils, garlic, and onions. As for aquatic plants, it mentioned papyrus and lotus, and among

the flowers, roses were highlighted (Al-Sharqāwī 2010, pp.17-18;

Kamāl 1894, pp. 5-14

Fig. (1): The Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian Plants and Trees, authored by Ahmed Pasha Kamal

Ahmed Pasha Kamal didn’t use the traditional transliteration of the ancient Egyptian

graphemes. He had relied on the Arabic letters instead of the Latin letters in writing the

phonetic pronunciation of the hieroglyphic signs (Ezzat & Mansour 2024, p. 120). This

was an attempt from his side to link between the ancient Egyptian language and the Arabic

language in both pronunciation and writing. This way (by using the Arabic letters) was first

published in his book in 1885: Al-Farāʾid al-Bahiyyah fī Qawāʿid al-Lughah al-

Hīrūghlīfiyyah (Al-Sharqāwī 2011, pp.45-46). He believed that the ancient Egyptian

language belongs, in part, to the family of Semitic. Kamal followed the same methodology

in the dictionary of the ancient plants and trees, which was printed three years after this

Kamal was trying to find the linguistic roots between the Hieroglyphs and the Arabic. He

succeeded in proving that ancient Egyptian is a branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family,

meaning that ancient Egyptian has similarities to Akkadian, Arabic, and Hebrew, and is

quite different from Indo-European languages like English, French, and German (cf. Al-

Sharqāwī 2010, pp. 57-63; Ezzat & Mansour 2024, pp. 117-118). Kamal was the first

The Medicinal Plants in Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees

Arabic philologist who ascribed the Egyptian dialects to the Arabs throughout slang and

philology (El-Qobiesy 2011, 33). That’s why Kamal did not use transliteration in his

dictionary except in a very few examples, because he depended on the Arabic letters instead

of the usual Latin letters.

Kamal’s dictionary of the ancient plants and trees was not just any lexicon limited to words

and their equivalents in various ancient scripts and languages, along with their modern

meanings. Instead, it included descriptions of the appearance of the plant or tree the word

referred to, mentioning, whenever possible, some of its uses, such as offerings, medicinal

treatments, oil for lighting, or woodcraft. He also placed the word in the context of certain

texts, in addition to providing a geographical, historical, or analytical presentation of the

term and its semantic development, comparing it with similar words. All of this was

documented using references and scientific sources (Al-Sharqāwī 2010, p. 18).

The dictionary consists of 316 pages. Kamal annotated each hieroglyphic word, followed

by its Arabic and French translations. In some cases, he also provided translations of the

word in Hieratic, Demotic, Hebrew, Coptic, Greek, and occasionally in Amharic.

One of the key observations we would like to highlight is the choice of ornamentation

representing the garden of Rekhmire, as depicted in his tomb, on the first pages of the book

p. 3). The artist removed the boat illustrated inside the pool and replaced it

with the phrase “Bismillah al-Rahman al-Rahim” (In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious,

the Most Merciful), a phrase Muslims use at the beginning of any endeavor. The reason for

choosing this figure goes to that the garden of Rekhmire, at Thebes (TT100), offers a

detailed glimpse into ancient Egyptian horticulture and landscape design during the New

Kingdom. The garden, typical of the noble estates of the time, was both functional and

ornamental. It featured geometric layouts with neatly arranged trees, shrubs, and plants,

likely organized into rectangular or square plots, with pathways dividing them (Davies

1943, pp. 12-13; Hugonot 1989, pp. 135-136; Wilkinson 1998, p. 102).

Fig. (2): An ornamentation representing the garden of Rekhmire, on the first pages of the book

with the phrase “Bismillah al-Rahman al-Rahim”

Fig. (3): The garden of Rekhmire at Thebes (TT100), offering a detailed glimpse into ancient

Egyptian horticulture and landscape design during the New Kingdom.

Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s methodology in Al-La’ali’ Al-Durriya fi Al-Nabatat wa Al-Ashjar

Al-Qadima Al-Misriyya reflects his scholarly approach to documenting Egypt’s ancient

flora, blending philology, historical research, and comparative studies. He succeeded to

add hundreds of words in this important dictionary. He meticulously examined the

hieroglyphic texts and inscriptions to identify terms related to ancient Egyptian plants and

Azza Ezzat & Mohamed Hassan Ismaeel

trees. He also paid close attention to the phonetic variations and conducted detailed

analyses of letter forms, likely incorporating methods involving the transposition (بلق) and

substitution (لادبإ) of letters (Rashwan 2023, p. 23). The dictionary also explores the

etymology of the Egyptian botanical terms, drawing parallels with words from Coptic and

other Semitic languages. Kamal aimed to trace the linguistic roots and transformations over

time, revealing connections between ancient Egyptian and Arabic terminologies, and his

method will be discussed in detail in the following section.

Moreover, Kamal identified the plants referenced in the ancient sources and compared

them with flora described in the Islamic botanical literature. He also contextualized the

importance of various plants in ancient Egyptian religion, economy, and daily life.

Kamal provided attempts at phonetic transcriptions for ancient Egyptian plant names based

on hieroglyphic symbols, enabling connections between written and spoken language.

3. The Ancient Egyptian Remedies from Kamal’s Dictionary of the

Ancient Plants and Trees Al-La’ali’ Al-Durriya fi Al-Nabatat wa Al-

Ashjar Al-Qadima Al-Misriyya

In the context of this paper, the researchers adopted a systematic methodology in studying

Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees, focusing on its relevance to ancient

Egyptian medicine and pharmacy. It was noted that Kamal listed 24 words related to

medicine along with their remedies, out of 627 words in total. These 24 terms will form

the core of our study, focusing on how Kamal investigated and documented the medical

plants in his dictionary. The study begins by identifying and analyzing the plant and herb

names listed in Kamal’s dictionary that were historically associated with medicinal

practices. Each entry is examined for its linguistic structure, historical context, and

medicinal application as described by Kamal. Following this, the selected terms are cross-

referenced with Kamal’s Le lexique de la langue Egyptienne ancienne to identify any

variations in spelling, meaning, or classification. This relative approach allows researchers

to compare the plant names in Dictionary of Plants and Trees with those in Kamal’s

Lexique Dictionary, to check if Kamal used the same terms consistently or if there were

any changes. This also helps in understanding how these medicinal plants align with

ancient Egyptian medical texts, providing insight into their medicinal uses and how Kamal

classified them over time. In the following section, the terms will be listed alphabetically:

a water plant (Ar.: ركي

On pages 19-20, Kamal mentioned a plant called ,

that was mentioned in Pap. Anastasi IV, 14 as

‘reed that grows in water’, a kind of reed used for medical purposes.

This was stated in Pap. Anastasi as:

bundles of reed heads. Additionally, it was used in the Egyptians’ offerings, probably the

so-called ركي

ا قرع known as ةريرذلا ب

ق or ‘aromatic reed’ or ‘Acorus’

In the dictionary (Kamal 2002b, p. 22),

Kamal gave other Coptic variants for this word,

is equivalent to and

ا قرع :جو.

The Medicinal Plants in Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees

It was stated in Kamal (2002b, p. 22) that this word is quoted from (Duemichen,

1866, p. 27). It is useful to clarify that we have two copies of the 2

Kamal’s dictionary for the letter

and both are housed in BA, the one mentioned

here is the unpublished copy, and the other copy was published by the Supreme

Council of Antiquities. It appears to be a very elementary draft, which was modified

later by Kamal.

Kamal didn’t mention the remedy number, whatever, it is no. 432; 64, 5-7

(Wreszinski 1913, p. 117).

(1976, p. 42) translated

The translation of the Berlin dictionary for

is ‘leeks or vegetables’ (Erman &

Grapow 1926, p. 34, 1-2, TLA lemma-no. 20990; cf. Deines & Grapow, 1959, p.

Translated as ‘Plant’ by Erman & Grapow (1926, p. 22, 8).

mountain mint (Ar.:

page 22, Kamal stated that

was a medical plant, possibly identical to

ⲁⲃⲥⲱⲛ

‘mountain mint’.

Unidentified plant (Deines & Grapow 1959, pp. 26-27). (Erman and Grapow 1926

pp. 64, 16-17) didn’t give a specific translation for this word, just “a plant from

Wadi el Natrun”.

Or ‘wild mint’ (Černý, 1976, p. 2).

dill (Ar.: تبش)

In ancient Egypt, dill was an ingredient in a pain-killing mixture: A remedy for killing

pains in all parts of the body, the seeds were used in an unguent for headache and in a

poultice for the vessels of the shoulder and for the vessels of the neck. The Copts used dill

as a mouth rinse. It is classified as both a vegetable and a spice, with its seeds being the

part most commonly used. It is known to strengthen the stomach and heart, act as a

carminative (relieving gas), and prevent hiccups. Additionally, it is considered a soothing

and calming agent that aids digestion, helps reduce bloating and colic for children, and has

been used in pain-relieving medications (Manniche 1989, p. 74).

The Medicinal Plants in Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees

On pages 26-28, Kamal mentioned the

‘dill’, i.e., Ar: shabat as

p. 88, 9; Deines & Grapow 1959, p. 34),

ⲁⲙⲓⲥⲓ

ⲁⲙⲓⲥⲉ

1921, p. 5; Crum 1939, p. 56),

(Montanari 2015, p. 174),

added that it was mentioned twice in Papyrus Ebers, the first one in 47, 10, 13-14 as follows:

pXrt nt dr st-a m tp

prt imst 1 prt xAsyt 1

prt SAw 1 innk 1

xt-ds 1 aD aA 1 wrH tp im

Another remedy for relieving headaches: dill seeds: (1), poppy

seeds (1), wormwood

(?): )1), raspberry

: (1), donkey fat: 1. The head is to be rubbed with all this.

Kamal thus concluded that the word

here means ‘headache’, which is a persistent

pain in the head.

Then he stated the second remedy in Papyrus Ebers 81, 10-14.

kt nt snDm mtw n qaH

antyw nDm 1 snTr 1 saAm 1

prt ibw 1 prt imst 1 gw 1

HsA TAy 1 wst nt aS 1

sskA 1 iSdt nt nht

nsty n bSA Ami m xt wat wt Hr.s

Another remedy for relieving tension in the sinews or vessels of the shoulder: sweet myrrh:

(1), frankincense: (1), garlic

:(1), lettuce seeds

: (1), dill seeds: 1, ?

: (1), “male” tree juice: (1),

: (1), ةنتفلا:

) 1(, sycamore fruit: (1),

of sweet clover grain

To be mixed then

applied to the affected area.

Kamal noted that these two prescriptions demonstrate the use of dill in ancient Egyptian

medicine for treating headaches and soothing the nerves. Moreover, Kamal (2002a, p.

recorded this plant in his dictionary in the following context:

Aneth (Copt. Handwort, p. 5)

(Spiegelberg, 1921, p. 5)

Azza Ezzat, Mohamed Hassan Ismaeel

Kamal mentioned it by mistake 11, 12-13, he used the rubric of remedy no. 248, and

the rest is remedy no. 249 (Wreszinski 1913, p. 74). Generally, Kamal used the

determinative (D40) instead of (A24), omitted all doses, and used (N33)

instead of (X1) in the frequent word

, also omitted in

, and he used the

determinative (E7) instead of (E20) in

and both signs are compatible with the

Translated to ‘a medical plant’ (cf. Erman & Grapow, 1929, p. 234, 3-5); or

‘Bryony/Bryonia’ (Faulkner, 1988, p. 185, 193; Deines & Grapow, 1959, p. 391-393).

Kamal gave the translation

يوشلا ‘wormwood’ for this word, known in Arabic with

many other names such as ن يتنسفأ ،

ور حيش ،مير

نيس نبا حيش. But it was translated

‘coriander’ in P. Ebers website by Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig

ا as translated by Kamal, and it was translated to ‘fleabane (?)’ in SAW.

؟قيلعلا as translated by Kamal, and ‘thorn-wood’ in SAW.

‘a disease’ is the translation of Erman & Grapow (1926, pp. 157, 5) for this word.

Kamal provided the line numbers inaccurately 10-11, remedy no. 650 (Wreszinski,

was stated as a ‘medical plant’ in the Berlin dictionary (cf. Erman & Grapow, 1930,

p. 45, 14-15; 43, 3).

plant was identified as ‘a medical plant’ (Erman & Grapow, 1926, pp. 95, 13-15);

or Lactuca sativa ‘lettuce’ (Loret, 1892, p. 68, no. 113), followed by Kamal, Al-La’ali’

Al-Durriya. Deines & Grapow (1959, p. 21) stated that

plant is not yet identified,

of which, outside of official use, it is mentioned that bread is made from it.

‘Sawdust from an

conifer’ in SAW.

قوقدنحلا بح Hunduqooq refers to a plant commonly known as alfalfa (Medicago sativa)

in English. It is a perennial herb widely grown as animal feed due to its high nutritional

value. This part was translated ‘

grain (product)’ in SAW.

On page 29, Kamal stated that the plant

was mentioned in Berlin Medical

but with an unknown meaning, it was translated as a “plant”. Kamal (2002b, p.

181) recorded another orthography for this word in his dictionary

as follows (Prisse

XVIII, 8) var. of .

Pap. Berlin 3038, remedy no. 65 (Wreszinski 1909, p. 13). Kamal (2002b, p. 181) stated

in his dictionary that this word was also mentioned by Levi (1889, p. 29).

The Medicinal Plants in Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees

eggplant? (Ar.: ؟ن

On pages 29-30, Kamal mentioned that

was a medical herb

that was stated in

According to Chab. Mél. 1864 p. 272

its fruit is called

suggested that it may be equivalent to Anab (بن

ا in Arabic), which refers to the ‘eggplant’.

Its definition in the Berlin dictionary is ‘type of field or garden plant with fruit’ (Erman

& Grapow 1926, p. 95, 13-15); the same in Deines & Grapow (1959, p. 38).

In many remedies such as 16, 90, 91, 535, 663.

No mention in Chabas (1864, p. 272).

رلا ةرجش

On pages 30-33, Kamal gave significant attention to the inhmn (pomegranate). He started with

the variant orthographies of pomegranates in hieroglyphs as: ,,

Deines & Grapow, 1959, p. 42-43; Manniche, 1989, 139; TLA lemma no. 27690;

, p. 98, 13-15; Ezz el-Din & Elkasrawy, 2020, 64-65

in Pap. Anstasi 5, 7 was

in Pap. Harris I as

and in Papyrus Ebers as .

was also found in this pronunciation rmn, and hermen which is close to the Arabic

pronunciation. Then he mentioned its meaning in other languages such as in Heberw ן

(Benner, 2009, p. 149), in Coptic

ⲁⲣⲙⲁⲛ

ϩⲉⲣⲙⲁⲛ

(Crum, 1939, p. 703)

in Greek ῥοά

(Montanari, 2015, p. 1881-1882) in Amharic

, in French la grenade, le grenadier, and

He then provided a historical background about pomegranate, noting that its trees originally

grew in the suburbs of Carthage on the African coast before being introduced to Egypt, where

they became abundant. The presence of pomegranates in Egypt is further supported by a

reference in the Torah: “They (the Hebrews) quarrelled with Moses and said... Why did you

bring us up out of Egypt to this terrible place? It has no grain or figs, grapevines or

pomegranates. And there is no water to drink!” (The Bible, Numbers 20:3-5),

which indicates

that these pomegranates and grapes were common foods in Egypt.

He also noted that the ancient Egyptians used pomegranates in medicine, as referenced in

Papyrus Ebers, 16, 15-18.

mnyt nt inhmn 1

sDr n iAdt atx swri r hrw 1

A remedy for killing Taenia: peel of the pomegranate

: (1/64), water (1/32). (To be left

overnight for condensation to form then) squeezed out. To be drunk over 1 day.

It was mentioned in another remedy in the same papyrus:

Azza Ezzat, Mohamed Hassan Ismaeel

kt mnit inhmn hbq Hr Hnqt 1

sDr m hnw Hr mw 1

dwA.k r sXAk st m Hbs swri in s

Another remedy: peel of pomegranate: to be pounded with (1/64 beer); (then) left to stand

pot with (1/32+1/64) of water. You should rise early in order to sieve this

through a cloth, then to be drunk by the human.

Kamal continued to present the medical uses of pomegranate, mentioning Zoega’s

Coptic medical papyrus,

specifically the following passage:

ⲉⲕϣⲁⲛϫⲓ

ⲛϩⲛⲕⲟⲩⲕⲉ ⲛϩⲣⲙⲁⲛ

ⲛⲅⲗⲁϩⲙⲟⲩ ⲛⲅⲑⲛⲟⲟⲩ ϩⲓ ⲏⲣⲡ ⲛⲅⲧⲱϩⲥ ⲉⲛⲉⲧⲱ ⲛⲯⲱⲣⲁ ϣⲁⲩⲗⲟ

”. If you have pomegranate

peel, break it and grind it with wine and apply it to the scabies marks, and they will go away”.

Then he moved to prove the effectiveness of this treatment from the contribution Ibn al-Baytar

entitled al-Mufradat 2

vol. page 143 (Ibn al-Bayṭār 1992, p. 440), where he mentioned that

if pomegranate peel or its fallen fruit is burned, then mixed with honey and applied to smallpox

scars and other marks for several consecutive days, their traces will disappear.

Then he reviewed the remedies of Al-Razi in Al-Hawi where he stated that if the peels of

pomegranate are crushed, and a measure of 15 was taken by a person who is suffering from

worms, and then he drinks hot water, it will get it out effectively. Al-Razi also stated that

pomegranate is beneficial for treating itching and scabies and that it strengthens the stomach

without causing any harm (Al-Rāzī 2000, pp. 3091-3094).

It’s worth mentioning that pomegranate was not native to Egypt and was likely introduced

during the New Kingdom as a result of campaigns in Western Asia. However, some scholars

contend that it was adopted earlier during the Middle Kingdom. The earliest remains of

pomegranates in Egypt were discovered at Tell el-Dab’a in the Delta, a site likely inhabited by

the Hyksos culture. It has thus been suggested that the tree’s diffusion occurred during the 13

Dynasty due to renewed connections with the Levant (Ezz el-Din & Elkasrawy 2020, p. 56).

Pomegranate may be used in the treatment of dysentery, diarrhoea, stomach-ache, and skin

ailment (Manniche 1989, p. 140). In a publication of Kamal entitled Bughyat al-Talibin fi Ulum

wa Awaid wa Sanaai wa Ahwal Qudama’ al-Misriyin

(Kamal 1909, p.366), He mentioned that

during the Ramesside period, the ancient Egyptians produced pomegranate wine, which they

referred to as ‘

it is likely that pomegranate trees had spread to the Dakhla Oasis,

as Ptolemaic texts mention this drink among the primary crops produced in the region.

This word occurred in Pap. Anastasi IV, 17, 5, but with after , and after the

determinative at the end (Gardiner, 1937, p. 54).

This word also occurred in Pap. Anastasi III, 2, 5, but slightly different as

, see: (Gardiner, 1937, p. 20).

Kamal omitted the stock after and after the determinative at the end (Erichsen,

This word occurred in Pap. Harris I (Erichsen, 1933, 40a, 14), but with the group

The Medicinal Plants in Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees

Papyrus Ebers 19, 19-20, remedy no. 63 (Wreszinski, 1913, p. 18).

https://dictionary.abyssinica.com/pomegranate (last access: 15/6/2025).

Remedy no. 50 (Wreszinski, 1913, p. 15). Some inaccurate signs were transcribed by

Kamal, such as (Aa23P?) instead of (N4), and (A236?) instead of (A36C).

Inaccurate translation for

mnyt nt inhmn ‘roots of pomegranate’ here and in the next

Papyrus Ebers 19, 19-22, wrongly stated by Kamal as 14, 19-22, remedy no. 63

(Wreszinski, 1913, p. 18).

Preserved in the Vatican. It consists of two parchment sheets, consisting of four pages

and contains 45 remedies for skin diseases, and was written in Sahidic Coptic. These

sheets were part of a book in which one of its recipes states that it was translated from

the medical papyrus that was kept in the library of Imhotep in Memphis.

Kamal copied this word inaccurately as

ⲉⲣϣⲁⲛϫⲓ

(Erman & Grapow, 1930, pp. 568, 12-17), but Erman and Grapow didn’t

recognize this drink, and they just mentioned that it is a sweet drink related to wine.

On page 54, Kamal reviewed a plant called

a medical herb stated in Papyrus

possibly its grains, and it looks like the wheat’s grain (cf. Deines & Grapow,

1959, p. 91-94; Erman & Grapow, 1926, p. 186, 3-4).

Moreover, Kamal (

2002c, p. 145-146

that this word was mentioned in Papyrus Ebers

81, 5 in the context

‘wheat grains’ ح

يبلا بح; and

‘white wheat grains’ in Papyrus Ebers 73, 4-5, and

‘barley grains’ in Papyrus Ebers 81, 5-6. In a different context in Papyrus

Ebers 75, 15 was stated

nD amaa Hsmn dSr

‘grind the grains of red natron’.

For example, in remedies nos. 555, 590, 699, 704, 745, etc.

, a medical herb

was mentioned as a medical herb. It was mentioned in Papyrus

which was mentioned in the tomb of Seti I, is possibly a variant for the same

was mentioned in remedies nos. 66, 94, and

in remedies nos. 78, 79, 82, 83, etc. We are not sure about Kamal’s

orthography for this word; he may have made a mistake when he replaced this sign

with another . Anyway,

couldn’t be identified by Deines and Grapow (1959, p.

88-90), it was translated as an official plant in (Erman & Grapow, 1926, p. 185, 5); a

plant (a very juicy fruit?) (TLA lemma-no. 37600).

Azza Ezzat, Mohamed Hassan Ismaeel

Acacia Nilotica (Ar.: ل

لينلا طنسلا)

On pages 65- 68, Kamal mentioned the , ,

tree, Acacia Nilotica طنسلا,

stating that parts of this tree were used in medical

treatments to heal stomach ailments, head and leg pains, expel blood waste, soften dry blood

vessels, and treat uterine prolapse. He added that acacia has many common varieties

worldwide, but the most famous one is the Arabic gum tree located in Arabia, Egypt, and

Morocco, and the well-known ones are the Acacia Arabica, Acacia vera, Acacia adansonii,

acacia farnesiana.

This tree has a nice smell and the ancient Egyptian known only two types

of it, the black acacia, similar to the Acacia Nilotica, and called

; and the white acacia

similar to acacia farnesiana and called

2002c, p. 133/284)

added in his dictionary that an oil called , ,

‘cedar oil’

(cf. Erman & Grapow 1929, pp. 28, 10

لا تيز was

extracted from this tree.

In Kamal (2002c, pp. 133/284), many citations were given for this word, i.e., Papyrus

Ebers, 74, 12; 46, 14; 77, 21; 83, 1; 93, 19, and in Chabas (1861, p. 48).

Cited by Lepsius (1842, 134, 9) as mentioned in Kamal (2002c, p. 133/284).

Cited in (Loret, 1880) on page 62, not 65 as cited in Kamal’s dictionary mentioned

translated to ‘fir tree’; ‘coniferous wood’ (TLA lemma-no. 40940; Germer, 1985, pp. 7-

In Arabic: ربنعلا طنس

in (Erman & Grapow 1930, pp. 520, 9-521, 15).

بسبلا/تشكلا ،ء

فرطلا ،لث

On pages 96-97,

was reviewed. Kamal stated that the name of this tree was

mentioned repeatedly in Papyrus Ebers.

Its fruits and seeds were used as a laxative, which led

Maspero to suggest that it might be Tamarisk.

This tree was widespread in Egypt and was

commonly used as a treatment for eye pains, especially in rural areas. Bsbs is similar to the

Arabic name basbasah (ةس

بسبلا), possibly referring to myristica mochata (nutmeg). The Arabs

were familiar with this tree, and it was eaten by both humans and livestock.

Remedies nos. 90, 106, 110, 112, 114, 554 etc.

Couldn’t be identified by Deines & Grapow (1959, pp. 180-181), ‘A kind of fruit’ as

interpreted by Erman & Grapow (1926, p. 477, 2-4).

سيلا ةرجش/ن

On pages 97-100, an interesting case discussed in Kamal’s dictionary involves the

He wrote various variants for

as , , , , , , قب ,

قب, , , ت قب. It was mentioned by Brugsh (1868a, p. 424-426) and

others. It was also mentioned in LD page 6 as , and in the Book of the Dead chapter 31,

3 (Lepsius, 1842, pl. XVI)

as قب myrobalan, moringa oleifera ر

ش. Kamal added that

this tree grows up to 5 meters in height and was widely spread in Egypt and Arabia. Its oil was

used by the ancients for perfume and had medicinal benefits for the stomach and head,

The Medicinal Plants in Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees

including aiding in the dissolution of stones (

and as a treatment for

Erman & Grapow, 1929

. This oil was called

known in Arabic as ر

ش تيز (Zayt Shajar Al-Yasar)

the so-called ن

بلا تيز ‘huile de ban’

and it was mentioned in Brugsch’s dictionary page 424 as . Kamal also mentioned

that Marriette stated in his publication entitled Abydos, vol. page 47 that this oil was among

the nine sacred oils.

It has been proven that it has several types, such as the red (Pap. Hearst), and the

green ,, (Book of the Dead and Papyrus Ebers, Louvre

Papyrus translated by Maspero), and the sweet in the so-called text ‘festival of Osiris’

translated by Loret (1882; 1883; 1884).

This oil is one of the precious imports of Arabia as

oil from the great treasures of Arabia” (Brugsch, 1868a, p. 426).

Kamal added that they used it to apply it to their hair, as it was mentioned

bAq nDm r DADA.sn

‘sweet oil for their heads’ (Pap. Gnos. de Leid).

The fruit of this tree is known in Arabic as ن

بلا ةبح وأ

لا ةبح وأ ةيل

لا ةبحلا ‘noise de Ban’.

Sometimes, it may be preceded by , as , , , to be a verb that

means ‘to be pure’, ‘

نا’, ‘حس

’, ‘ن هد’.

Kamal here added a very important note, where he mentioned that because of the abundance

of this tree and its fame in the land of Egypt, Egypt was named after it,

so it was called:

قب as stated in Loret, RecTrav VIII, 1885.

Moreover, Kamal (

) stated in his dictionary (see fig: 4) that the Coptic words

ⲕⲩⲡⲧⲁⲓⲟⲥ

ⲅⲩⲡⲧⲓⲟⲥ

, the Greek word Αίγύπτίος, and the Arabic word ‘طبق’ Qibṭ were derived

It is noteworthy that in one of the Wörterbuch drafts (fig:

5) for this word, we find many variants almost identical to the models provided by Kamal, but

some of them were not included in the final publication.

entry in Kamal, Makhtut Muʻjam al-Lugha al-Misriya al-Qadimah: Manuscrit Lexique

de la Langue Egypienne Ancienne 5, 254.

© Bibliotheca Alexandrina

Azza Ezzat, Mohamed Hassan Ismaeel

Fig. (5): The draft of

in the Wörterbuch

© Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae (TLA)

It’s worth mentioning that Moringa peregrina still grows in the rocky areas of Egypt today,

though it is very rare. The tree reaches a height of 10-15 meters and is usually leafless, with

small, elongated leaves if present. Its fruit is a pod up to 20 cm long, containing edible seeds.

Moringa oil, extracted from these seeds, has a slightly sweet taste and is suitable for cooking

as well as for producing perfumes and cosmetics. Evidence of Ben nuts goes back to the

Graeco-Roman period, with the ancient Egyptian name for the tree and its oil being

has been documented since the Old Kingdom. The ancient Egyptians imported the

large quantities, especially from Syria, since their own production was apparently not sufficient

(Germer 1985, p. 58), and in Pap. Anastasi IV 15, 4 it was mentioned that “

Nahrina”, and that the people of Cyprus (Alašia) come with horns in their hands full of

in 17, 8. Delivery of bek-oil was recorded in the tribute lists of Thutmosis III, but always added

together with the incense, honey, and pitch delivered in the same amphorae (Helck 1963, p.

oil was very popular in ancient Egyptian medicine, and was used as a liniment,

but also preferred for rectal infusions. The

tree also played a role in the cult, in which two

tree deities were worshipped (Germer, 1985, p. 58), and the sweet

oil was used for cosmetic

purposes (Helck 1963, p. 700).

‘Something pathological in the body, in the limbs, etc. that can lead to death’ according

to Erman & Grapow (1926, p. 347, 11); or ‘An eye disease’ according to (TLA lemma-

The quoted word here from (1884, p. 53, §33. col. 35) but with the determinative

instead of . Kamal (2002d, p. 249) stated the word with both determinatives.

cf. Pap. Anastasi III, 3, 2 (Gardiner, 1937, p. 23).

Confirmed in Berlin dictionary (Erman & Grapow, 1926, p. 425, 18).

The correct citation is vol. 7 (Loret, 1886, p. 101-114), Loret made a full point entitled

‘l’Olivier et le Moringa’ from page 101 onwards, the mentioned quotation here about

) as a name of Egypt was stated in page 105.

After Montanari (2015, p. 47). Naville also suggested that Αίγύπτος may be related to

which means both ‘a river’ and ‘flooded’ land. It is found already in the

Pyramid Texts in the following sentence, which is part of a fragment afterwards

The Medicinal Plants in Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees

incorporated in the Book of the Dead (Naville, 1917, p. 229). Our sincere gratitude to

Prof. Dr. Mamdouh El-Damaty for informing us about this info.

oil it definitely ‘moringa oil’ not ‘olive oil’ (cf. Koura, 1995, p. 79-82).

Cyperus papyrus

was mentioned as a type of fruit or plant, literally

meaning “the eye plant”. It was referenced in the Berlin Medical Papyrus and has two varieties:

that grow in the plain lands and another called

that grows in the desert.

Brugsch (1868a, p. 594) stated that

and may correspond to the Mamitha

or Glaueiaum proeparartm?

is unidentified by Erman & Grapow, (1928, p. 33, 11-15) ‘celery’ or ‘parsley’ in

(Deines & Grapow, 1959, p. 214-217; Germer, 1985, p. 137-138).

papyrus (Ar.: رف

On pages 169-170, Kamal mentioned a plant

papyrus, referring to it as follows:

σκηπτρον παπυροειδις

(Decree of Canopus) .

He noted that it

resembles papyrus

(cf. Brugsch’s Dictionary p. 355). Sulayman ibn Hassan

stated that papyrus

is a type of reed, known to the Egyptians as رف

لا. It is an aquatic plant with leaves resembling

palm fronds and a long green stem. It is used to make paper suitable for writing or rolling,

‘the papyri’. Whenever it was mentioned in a medical text a (burnt) papyrus, this plant is meant.

This plant has numerous medicinal uses and belongs to the Cyperus papyrus family.

Kamal misspelled the word παπυροειδες

Whatever, this word was mentioned on lines

62-63 of Decree of Canopus (Sharpe, 1870). Our sincere gratitude to our dear colleague

Rana El-Zalabany for her assistance in identifying and interpreting this term within the

Abu Dawud Sulayman Ibn Hassan Ibn Juljul an Andalusian Arab physician and

pharmacologist.

كلا’ according to Kamal.

On page 188, Kamal stated that

was one of the components that makes the Kyphi

melange dans Dümichen IV, 82/6 (E. De rouge, dict. mis).

Kyphi, cyphi, or Egyptian cyphi

is a compound incense that was used in

ancient Egypt for religious and medical purposes.

Kamal did not give the intended page number in this reference.

a plant (Ar.: ىثنخلا)

(cf. Deines & Grapow, 1959, p. 400)

was referred as the name of a plant

whose fruits were used in medicine (in Papyrus Ebers).

It may correspond to Asphodelus

Dioscorides described it as a common plant with leaves resembling those of a leek, a smooth

stem topped with a white flower, and long, round roots similar in shape to those of an oak. The

plant is characterized as hot and spicy.

Azza Ezzat, Mohamed Hassan Ismaeel

In remedy no. 835 in particular.

In Arabic known as ىثنخلا وأ ،قوربلا ،سارشأ ،شيرسلا (cf. Kamal, 2002e, p. 345).

Plantago? (Ar.: ؟ل

On pages 200-201, Kamal mentioned a plant called

(in the Medical Papyrus of

Berlin 3. G-E), which was widely used for medicinal purposes

It is possibly identified as

ⲁⲥⲟⲩⲧ

سل) )١٢ ص ،٢٠٠٠ ،رونلا دبع(. The plant exists in both forms, large and

small, with the larger one being the most useful.

Unidentified plant’ by Deines & Grapow (1959, p. 421) and Erman & Grapow (1930,

, Lebanese cedar (Ar.: نيبرشلا)

On pages 209-214, another plant reviewed by Kamal is the

mentioned in Brugsch’s dictionary page 1185,

ⲡⲓϣⲉⲛⲥⲓϥⲓ

‘Lebanese cedar’ نيبرشلا.

Loret (1880, p. 60) stated that

is believed to be cedar due to its medicinal properties

mentioned in the Papyrus Ebers, as well as its references in Greek and Latin medical sources.

Papyrus Ebers stated that it was used to eliminate worms called

as stated in the following remedies:

Papyrus Ebers, 17, 2-8. remedy nos. 53-54 (Wreszinski, 1913, pl. 16).

Another remedy for eliminating worm from the abdomen: resin of Lebanese cedar

date pulp (?): (1/64), water: (1/32+1/64). To be left overnight for condensation to form; (then)

squeezed out. To be drunk over 1 day.

Papyrus Ebers, 17, 9-18, 2 remedies nos. 55, 57 (Wreszinski, 1913, pl. 16).

kt pXrt nt smA HfAt

Xr nk sb rdi ir.f hrw 4 Hr xmt-nw sDr n iAdt

sXAk m mHt diw-nw hrw rdi nn gm wS Hr idn sDr iAdt m Smw

The Medicinal Plants in Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees

Another remedy for killing worms: resin of Lebanese cedar: to be arranged that spends 4 days

in three vessels and to be sieved dished into five vessels, and make the eight vessels for the one

who is deaf, drip (it for him) in summer.

Papyrus Ebers, 17, 9 and 18, 7-15 remedy nos. 55, 59 (Wreszinski, 1913, pl. 16-17).

kt pXrt nt smA HfAt

64 nD sDr Hr bit

A remedy for killing worms: Another (remedy):

(fruit): (a quarter), black caraway

quarter), resin of Lebanese cedar

: (1/8), honey: (1/8), beer: (1/64). To be ground; (and) left

with honey to stand overnight; you should rise early, in order to rub this into (1/64 of) beer.

Then to be drunk by the human.

Papyrus Ebers, 22, 1-2 remedy no. 72 (Wreszinski, 1913, p. 20):

kt pXrt nt smA pnd

16 psi atx swri Hr-awy

Another remedy for killing

worm: resin of Lebanese cedar: (1/64),

vessels: (1/16).

Dish it, cook it; (then) squeeze it out. To be drunk immediately.

Kamal added that Loret stated that

means the ‘Lebanese cedar’, which grows in the

mountains of Lebanon and is also said to be found in the Taurus Mountains. It reaches a height

of 60 feet, with widespread branches and dense needle-like leaves. The tree bears fruit year-

round, producing purple, striped cones. Its wood is hard, resinous, and fragrant, resistant to

mites and impermeable to moisture. For these qualities, it has been highly valued since ancient

Kamal noted that the correct interpretation of this tree is that it is called the Sherbin )نيبرشلا(,

with its smaller variety known as le cèdre ordinaire (ن يبر

ش). It is a large tree that produces

resin and bears fruit similar to that of the cypress tree, though much smaller in size. The Sherbin

tree can also be small and thorny, bearing fruit similar to that of the juniper tree, with a round

seed resembling that of the myrtle. Both varieties produce resin. The Egyptian, Coptic, and

Arabic words exhibit verbal similarity and share identical properties in terms of medical

treatments. This serves as evidence supporting Kamal’s conclusion.

Again, Kamal transcribed (Aa23P ?) instead of (N4), (A236 ?) instead of

Azza Ezzat, Mohamed Hassan Ismaeel

part (?) of an umbrella acacia’, this component is followed by

translated by Kamal, ‘date pulp’ in SAW.

Beside the other repeated mistakes above, Kamal omitted in , and he transcribed

Different translation in SAW as follows: “(A remedy for killing a

parasitic worm):

part (?) of an umbrella acacia (fruit?): To be arranged that this spends 4 days

in a “third (decantation)” (?); (and then) left overnight for condensation to form; (this

is) to be sieved into a dish on the 5

day; To be placed into (???) --- FOUND EMPTY

--- to be deaf (?); (This is) left overnight in summer for condensation to form. (And)

drunk in the morning”.

Kamal used the sign instead of in .

is unidentified by Erman & Grapow (1930, p. 514, 13).

part (?) of an umbrella acacia’ as mentioned above.

A slightly different translation in SAW as follows: “Another remedy for killing a

part of an umbrella acacia: 1/64, strong beer: 1/16. To be cooked;

(then) squeezed out. To be drunk immediately”.

Malva (Ar.: ز يبخ ،ز

بخ ،يزيبش)

On pages 242-243, Kamal mentioned a plant

identified as khobbaza (Malva,

Brugsch (1868b, p. 1375) stated that it is a medicinal plant.

a medicinal plant

(cf. Deines & Grapow, 1959, p. 477-479; Kamal, 2002f,

p. 44) is a medicinal plant as mentioned by Brugsch (1868b, p. 1392).

Ricinus? (Ar.: ؟عورخلا)

On page 276, Kamal mentioned a plant called , ,

whose bark and juice were used in medicine, according to Brugsch’s (1868b)

p.1500. He stated that it is possibly identical to a plant , whose fruit is called , as

mentioned in Pap. Ebers,

ϫⲓⲥⲙⲓⲥ

, identified as the Ricinus seed )عورخلا بح(.

‘Unidentified plant’ by Deines & Grapow (1959, p. 530); Germer (2008, p. 144-145);

and Erman & Grapow (1931, p. 141, 1-4).

garlic (Ar.: موث)

On page 297, another plant was mentioned, ,

used in medicine, known as in Hebrew.

Kamal (2002g, 20, p. 29/8) copied this orthography from Papyrus Ebers 90, 9, and he

gave another detail that this word is an equivalent to

‘type of acid plant’.

‘Unidentified plant’ (Deines & Grapow, 1959, p. 548-549; Erman & Grapow, 1931, p.

The Medicinal Plants in Ahmed Pasha Kamal’s Dictionary of Plants and Trees

, a medicinal plant

is a medicinal plant

and was mentioned by Brugsch.

‘Unidentified plant’ (Deines & Grapow, 1959, p. 579; Erman & Grapow, 1931, pp. 481,

a medicinal herb (Ar.: شيشدلا)

Finally, on page 307, Kamal mentioned that

is a medicinal herb (Chabas voy. 51, 37,

175) (Chabas, 1866, p. 51) and suggested that it may correspond to شيشدلا (Dešiš).

The foregoing review shows that we are dealing with a unique work, even though it is old, it

is still a valuable contribution. This publication is a dictionary arranged alphabetically, each

hieroglyphic word was given with its variants with a source or reference for each, if possible,

and with the equivalent in other scripts and languages, if any, such as Demotic, Coptic, Hebrew,

etc., then followed by a detailed explanation of this plant and its botanical term in many cases,

in addition to medical remedies which shows its various uses. It is clear that Kamal was far

ahead of his time, he presented his precocious material with excellent quality, and followed a

clear, specific, and consistent methodology in his work. It’s interesting that the same

methodology used in the later publications and still used today. Kamal’s dictionary of ancient

Egyptian plants was most likely the first step for his monumental dictionary of the ancient

Egyptian language, in which he added more information over time. Finally, this book and

Kamal’s other undervalued contributions in general need to be re-evaluated, re-issuing it again

in an up-to-date version that befitting the author’s status is an immense project that must be

discussed to save the moral right of the first Egyptian Egyptologist and archaeologist, Ahmed

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